All the attendees also met the investigator within the Consultation of Tobaccology of University Paris-Sud. The study was approved by the local medical authority Preventive Medicine. Included subjects ages 18—64 years, 85 female and 46 male, 83 smokers and 48 non smokers exhibited no mucosal lesions, mycosis, burning mouth syndrome, aphthous stomatitis or tongue piercing.
Subjects under medication were excluded except for oral contraception as well as when presenting numerous dental deafferentations root canal treatment or tooth extraction. During the first visit, a 45 minute presentation was given to smokers and non-smokers. During this visit, subjects received full information on the proposed research and follow-up procedures. Further visits of smokers included a consultation with the tobacco cessation specialist and an evaluation of the CO level prior to the taste sensitivity test.
During the first visit all smokers were offered help with tobacco cessation; the candidates for stopping smoking were invited back every week for 2 months, and then every month for 12 months. This prescription was given for 3 months after the day of cessation in doses adapted to the patient, usually decreasing from 21 mg to 7 mg over 3 months. In total, among the group of smokers, 66 subjects expressed their wish to stop smoking during the first visit, and only 35 achieved their objective and were included in the follow up study for at least 6 months.
During the follow-up, 3 patients were medicated and excluded, 6 relapsed and 2 were quickly lost from the follow-up. In total, as shown in Fig. Controls and smokers were asked not to drink anything coffee, alcohol, soda, etc. Smokers were asked to stop smoking at least 2 h before threshold evaluation.
Electrogustometric EGM stimulation consists of iontophoretic stimulation. In our study, an anodal current [ 29 ] applies the cations e. The anodal current evokes sensations more often described as sour, salty or metallic [ 31 ] which suggest a gustatory function taste threshold [ 5 , 32 ]. By contrast, a buzzing vibration, tingling or electrical sensation [ 32 ] suggest a trigeminal function [ 5 ]. Location of the 9 recording loci on the surface of the tongue.
T, tip; Tr and Tl, tip right and tip left fungiform papillae ; Er and El, edge right and edge left foliate papillae ; Dr and Dl, dorsal right and dorsal left fungiform papillae ; Pr and Pl, fungiform papillae just anterior to the circumvallate papillae. For each threshold evaluation, the current was applied for 1 s. Tip of the tongue middle T , right Tr and left Tl , where the density of fungiform papillae is highest;.
Dorsal right and left Dr and Dl , where the density of fungiform papillae is lowest;. The electrode was put on the tongue so that it could adapt to the tactile-cool stimulation, then a current of intensity above usual thresholds was used to identify the sensation the subject should expect, well below any somatosensory sensation , after which a null stimulation was done to better show the difference between null and positive.
The threshold evaluation was repeated starting from the preceding result but with a smaller intensity difference to precisely identify the EGM threshold value. The EGM detection threshold was taken as the lowest current intensity eliciting a metallic-like, sour or salty taste perception.
The test duration for EGM thresholds evaluation at all loci was about 15 min. At the second consultation each smoker was given a self-assessment questionnaire [ 38 ], validated by the French Society of Tobaccology. This questionnaire included an evaluation of the motivation to cease tobacco, measured on a linear visual analogical scale from 0 to 10, an evaluation of the anxiety and depression levels using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scales HAD test [ 39 ]. The FNDT [ 40 ] indicating the dependence on smoking and a measure of the carbon monoxide CO level in expired air were recorded during sessions before tobacco cessation.
Reasons for stopping smoking as well as associated fears fear of not succeeding, weight gain, mood changes or loss of intellectual or sensory faculties… were also recorded. A short questionnaire for non-smokers gender, age, weight, height… was completed.
Non-parametric statistics were employed because the threshold values did not follow a normal distribution. The comparisons between the sensitivity thresholds of the various groups were analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis test KW and a linear mixed model covering each locus for a global comparison of repeated measures The assumption of normality of residuals was not met, nevertheless a mixed model is still robust in terms of parameter estimation and the Mann—Whitney U-test MW for individual loci comparisons.
All smokers smoked light flue-cured filtered tobacco. Effect of smoking on Electrogustometric thresholds. The recovery at the posterior loci was observed after 4 weeks and was total after 9 weeks.
Variations of EGM thresholds during the first 2 months after quitting day. The effect of gender on taste thresholds was investigated for non-smokers and smokers. No significant difference was observed between men and women, both in non-smokers and in smokers MW test: P value varied from 1 to 0.
This study, using the electrogustometry method, showed the variability of sensory disturbances related to various loci on the tongue caused by tobacco smoke and the possibility of rapid rehabilitation of taste sensitivity after smoking cessation. Compared to tests based on chemical solutions, EGM is a reliable tool for the clinical evaluation of taste sensitivity in clinical settings [ 13 , 36 , 41 , 42 ].
Thus electrogustometry cannot reflect the full taste experience accurately [ 44 ]. Nevertheless, the electrogustometry method is well adapted for a specific taste evaluation and gives precise and reproducible measurements of detection thresholds for a major part of taste sensitivity evaluation [ 16 , 37 , 45 , 46 ].
In a recent work Pavlidis et al. We have not observed such a difference between males and females in all tested loci. Along the same lines, Boucher et al. Thus these factors may be the cause of discrepancies between these studies. In agreement with many other studies that have been published previously [ 3 , 4 ] and more recently documented [ 5 , 35 , 47 ], significantly higher EGM taste thresholds were found in smokers compared to non-smokers, confirming the taste sensitivity deficit in smokers.
There are several hypotheses concerning the mechanism of taste sensitivity decrease: significant changes in shape, size and vascularisation of the fungiform papillae [ 5 , 35 ], decreasing number of taste cells [ 47 , 48 ], indirect result of tobacco substances impacting salivary glands [ 49 — 51 ], reduced zinc, vitamin B, E, and acid folic levels, all these components affecting taste [ 52 — 55 ]. One other explanation concerning the mechanism of taste sensitivity decrease is that nicotine acts at a central level and modulates the taste signal.
Indeed, it was shown that the application of nicotine on the tongue surface modified the responses of the neurons in the nucleus of the solitary tract NTS of rats [ 56 ], the principal central relay in the gustatory pathway of taste buds of the tongue. The mechanism of harmful effects of tobacco components on the taste system is not yet clear. Thus further studies are needed to identify in tobacco smoke the molecules responsible for the harmful effects on the gustatory function.
The dorsal loci were more impaired when compared to tip loci, which is consistent with the lower density of fungiform taste papillae at these locations [ 57 , 58 ]; hence any deficit is more easily detected. Such data suggests that areas behind the curve of the dorsal part of the tongue were protected. In the same way recently, Khan et al. The higher the number of cigarettes that were smoked, the lower the fungiform papillae count.
As reported in a previous study, an inverse relationship was observed between the EGM thresholds and the number of fungiform papillae, in healthy subjects [ 61 ], in patients with a severe damage to the chorda tympani nerve or with chronic otitis media [ 33 , 42 ], or in smokers [ 47 ]. Finally, our study demonstrates that the decrease in taste sensitivity in smokers is reversible when cessation smoking. The EGM thresholds decreased progressively, and reached the taste sensitivity range of non-smoking controls.
The recovery was achieved 2 weeks after smoking cessation on the tip and lateral sites of the tongue. A cigarette pack with plain packaging. Plain packaging became mandatory on 1 December TAGS: cessation. How quitting nicotine can improve mental health. Home Research and resources 4 foods and drinks that could help smokers quit. News Article 4 foods and drinks that could help smokers quit. Certain foods and drinks can be a potential benefit—or burden—when trying to quit smoking.
Fruits and vegetables Cigarettes block the absorption of important nutrients, such as calcium and vitamins C and D. Adolescents are found to be the most at-risk for nicotine addiction since their brains are still developing. It's estimated that three out of four teenage smokers will continue smoking into adulthood, even if they want to quit.
Research has linked smoking during adolescence with increased impulsivity and mood disorders. Young people are also more at risk of depression and might be more at risk of developing a dependence on other drugs if they have a dependence on nicotine.
Dependence on nicotine can lead to symptoms of withdrawal if a person stops smoking. Withdrawal includes many physical and mental effects such as:.
If you want to quit smoking, you have options that can help. Talk to your doctor about what they recommend. They might suggest nicotine replacement therapy NRT , which comes in various forms including patches, lozenges, gum and administers small doses of nicotine without the other toxic additives that are in cigarettes. NRT can help ween you off of smoking. It can be tough to quit smoking but know that you're not alone. Attending a support group either in person or online can help you stay motivated to quit.
You can even download a quit smoking app on your phone. Having other people and support systems to hold you accountable for your goal of staying smoke-free can make a huge difference. For more mental health resources, see our National Helpline Database. There are many additives cigarette companies put into cigarettes, and they put people at risk for many physical and mental health consequences.
To avoid the effects of these toxic additives, talk to your doctor about the best way for you to quit smoking. It may feel challenging at first, but prioritizing your physical and mental health can motivate you to be smoke-free. So you're ready to finally quit smoking?
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